PASSAGE 3

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

How stress affects our judgement

Some of the most important decisions of our lives occur while we're feeling stressed and anxious.27From medical decisions to financial and professional ones, we are all sometimes required to weigh up information under stressful conditions.But do we become better or worse at processing and using information under such circumstances?

My colleague and I, both neuroscientists, wanted to investigate how the mind operates under stress, so we visited some local fire stations.Firefighters' workdays vary quite a bit.Some are pretty relaxed; they'll spend their time washing the truck, cleaning equipment, cooking meals and reading.Other days can be hectic, with numerous life-threatening incidents to attend to; they'll enter burning homes to rescue trapped residents, and assist with medical emergencies.These ups and downs presented the perfect setting for an experiment on how people's ability to use information changes when they feel under pressure.28

We found that perceived threat acted as a trigger for a stress reaction that made the task of processing information easier for the firefighters - but only as long as it conveyed bad news.

This is how we arrived at these results.We asked the firefighters to estimate their likelihood of experiencing 40 different adverse events in their life, such as being involved in an accident or becoming a victim of card fraud.29We then gave them either good news (that their likelihood of experiencing these events was lower than they'd thought) or bad news (that it was higher) and asked them to provide new estimates.

People are normally quite optimistic - they will ignore bad news and embrace the good.31This is what happened when the firefighters were relaxed; but when they were under stress, a different pattern emerged.Under these conditions, they became hyper-vigilant to bad news, even when it had nothing to do with their job (such as learning that the likelihood of card fraud was higher than they'd thought), and altered their beliefs in response.32,35In contrast, stress didn't change how they responded to good news (such as learning that the likelihood of card fraud was lower than they'd thought).33

Back in our lab, we observed the same pattern in students who were told they had to give a surprise public speech, which would be judged by a panel, recorded and posted online.34Sure enough, their cortisol levels spiked, their heart rates went up and they suddenly became better at processing unrelated, yet alarming, information about rates of disease and violence.

When we experience stressful events, a physiological change is triggered that causes us to take in warnings and focus on what might go wrong.Brain imaging reveals that this 'switch' is related to a sudden boost in a neural signal important for learning, specifically in response to unexpected warning signs, such as faces expressing fear.30

Such neural engineering could have helped prehistoric humans to survive.When our ancestors found themselves surrounded by hungry animals, they would have benefited from an increased ability to learn about hazards.In a safe environment, however, it would have been wasteful to be on high alert constantly.So, a neural switch that automatically increases or decreases our ability to process warnings in response to changes in our environment could have been useful.In fact, people with clinical depression and anxiety seem unable to switch away from a state in which they absorb all the negative messages around them.

It is also important to realise that stress travels rapidly from one person to the next.If a co-worker is stressed, we are more likely to tense up and feel stressed ourselves.We don't even need to be in the same room with someone for their emotions to influence our behaviour.Studies show that if we observe positive feeds on social media, such as images of a pink sunset, we are more likely to post uplifting messages ourselves.36If we observe negative posts, such as complaints about a long queue at the coffee shop, we will in turn create more negative posts.

In some ways, many of us now live as if we are in danger, constantly ready to tackle demanding emails and text messages, and respond to news alerts and comments on social media.Repeatedly checking your phone, according to a survey conducted by the American Psychological Association, is related to stress.In other words, a pre-programmed physiological reaction, which evolution has equipped us with to help us avoid famished predators, is now being triggered by an online post.Social media posting, according to one study, raises your pulse, makes you sweat, and enlarges your pupils more than most daily activities.

The fact that stress increases the likelihood that we will focus more on alarming messages, together with the fact that it spreads extremely rapidly, can create collective fear that is not always justified.After a stressful public event, such as a natural disaster or major financial crash, there is often a wave of alarming information in traditional and social media, which individuals become very aware of.But that has the effect of exaggerating existing danger.And so, a reliable pattern emerges - stress is triggered, spreading from one person to the next, which temporarily enhances the likelihood that people will take in negative reports, which increases stress further.38As a result, trips are cancelled, even if the disaster took place across the globe; stocks are sold, even when holding on is the best thing to do.39

The good news, however, is that positive emotions, such as hope, are contagious too, and are powerful in inducing people to act to find solutions.Being aware of the close relationship between people's emotional state and how they process information can help us frame our messages more effectively and become conscientious agents of change.40